Minerals, Electrolytes & Mental Health: Understanding How These Important Nutrients Affect Your Mood, Energy, and Thinking

A basic metabolic panel is one of the most common blood tests a psychiatric prescriber orders, and one of the least explained. The printout comes back with sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, and sometimes magnesium and phosphate, each with a reference range beside it, and most people are left guessing what any of it has to do with their mood or their medication.

This essay covers what each mineral does, what a normal result looks like, what low or high values can feel like when they cause symptoms at all, and which psychiatric medicines move these numbers. It is written for adults being treated for a mental-health condition.

One point first, because the rest of the page depends on it. Most depression, anxiety, poor sleep, and trouble concentrating are not caused by a mineral level. Electrolyte problems are worth finding because they are dangerous and fixable, and because a few psychiatric medicines cause them, not because a magnesium tablet is likely to treat a mood disorder. For the broader question of which medical checks belong in a depression evaluation, see Before You Call It Depression.

Key takeaways

• Reference ranges differ slightly between laboratories. Read your result against the range printed on your own report, not against a number from this page.1
• A blood level and a body store are not the same thing. Serum magnesium, calcium, and phosphate can all look normal while body stores are low.234
• Low sodium is the electrolyte problem that matters most in psychiatry. SSRIs, SNRIs, carbamazepine, and oxcarbazepine can cause it, usually in the first weeks and more often after 65.567
• Lithium and sodium are linked. Dehydration, a low-salt diet, and diuretics can raise a lithium level.8
• Potassium, selenium, copper, and phosphate supplements are never something to start on your own. Zinc above 40 mg a day and high-dose calcium carry their own risks.9101112
• Chest pain, an irregular heartbeat, a seizure, loss of consciousness, or trouble breathing are emergencies. Call 911.

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Why a psychiatric prescriber orders these tests

Electrolytes are minerals that carry an electrical charge in body fluids. Nerve signals, muscle contraction, heart rhythm, and the water balance of every cell depend on them. When one is far out of range, the brain often shows it first: confusion, irritability, fatigue, and seizures are classic signs of severe low sodium.13 That is the first reason for the test. New confusion or fatigue from a sodium of 122 needs a different plan than a depressive episode, and the two can look alike.

The second reason is medication safety: several psychiatric medicines change these values, and a baseline gives the prescriber something to compare against later. The section on psychiatric medicines and your electrolytes covers those pairs.

The third reason, and the least common, is a genuine deficiency or excess producing physical symptoms. Those are real and worth treating, and they are the exception.

How to read the panel

Use the range on your report. This essay quotes the typical adult ranges MedlinePlus publishes, but every laboratory sets its own limits and some use different units.1 A value flagged by a hair is usually a conversation, not a crisis.

Ask what the number stands for. Serum calcium is a poor reflection of total body calcium, almost all of which is in bone.3 Serum magnesium does not accurately reflect total body magnesium.2 Serum phosphate does not necessarily reflect whole-body phosphorus.4 A normal result rules out the dangerous extremes; it does not always rule out a low store.

Sodium

Sodium sets the water balance of the body and is essential for nerve and muscle function.13 The typical adult range is 135 to 145 mEq/L (the same numbers in mmol/L).1

Low sodium (hyponatremia) is the electrolyte problem psychiatric prescribers watch for most, because several of the medicines they use cause it. MedlinePlus lists the common symptoms as confusion, irritability and restlessness, fatigue, headache, loss of appetite, muscle weakness or cramps, nausea, and, when severe, convulsions.13 Much of that list overlaps with depression, anxiety, and medication side effects, which is why the test exists.

Causes include diuretics, vomiting and diarrhea, heavy sweating, heart, kidney and liver disease, and the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH), in which the body holds on to water it should be passing.13 Drug-induced SIADH is the mechanism behind antidepressant and anticonvulsant hyponatremia. Treatment depends on the cause and may include limiting water intake.13 If a medicine is making you retain water, drinking more does not help. The prescriber decides whether to lower the dose, switch, or stop, and how fast the sodium can safely be corrected.

Potassium

Potassium keeps the electrical gradient across every cell membrane, which is what nerve transmission, muscle contraction, and a steady heart rhythm depend on.14 MedlinePlus gives a typical range of 3.7 to 5.2 mEq/L; the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements uses about 3.6 to 5.0 mmol/L, which is a fair illustration of how ranges vary.1514 In people with normal kidneys, an abnormal potassium is rare.14

Low potassium (hypokalemia) often causes no symptoms when mild. When it does, MedlinePlus lists constipation, palpitations or skipped beats, fatigue, muscle weakness or spasms, and tingling. A large drop can cause dangerous heart rhythms, especially in people with heart disease.16 Common causes are diuretics, vomiting and diarrhea, laxative overuse, eating disorders such as bulimia, and a low magnesium level.16 More than half of people with clinically significant hypokalemia may be magnesium-deficient, so the two are treated together.14

High potassium (hyperkalemia) usually causes no symptoms at all. When it does, the signs are cardiac: palpitations, a slow or irregular pulse, chest pain, difficulty breathing, and sudden collapse if the heart slows or stops.17 The usual causes are kidney disease and blood-pressure medicines, most often ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists such as spironolactone.17

Neither source lists mood symptoms for high or low potassium. It is a heart-rhythm mineral first.

Observational studies, including a 2026 NHANES analysis, link higher dietary intake of potassium and other minerals with fewer depressive symptoms.18 Those are cross-sectional associations; they do not show that potassium causes or treats depression.

Supplements. Over-the-counter potassium products are limited to 99 mg per dose, about 2 percent of the daily value, because larger doses of potassium chloride have been linked to small-bowel injury.14 Do not start potassium on your own.

Chloride and bicarbonate

Chloride, with a typical range of 98 to 107 mEq/L, travels with sodium and is read alongside it and the kidney tests rather than on its own.19 Bicarbonate, reported as CO2 with a typical range of 23 to 29 mEq/L, tells the clinician about acid-base balance and is likewise interpreted with the rest of the panel, not as a stand-alone mood or anxiety marker.20

Magnesium

Magnesium is a cofactor in more than 300 enzyme systems, including those that govern nerve and muscle function, blood-glucose control, and blood pressure.2 The typical blood range is 1.7 to 2.2 mg/dL (0.70 to 0.91 mmol/L).21

Adult RDAs run from 310 to 420 mg a day depending on age and sex, and the Tolerable Upper Intake Level for supplemental magnesium (not food) is 350 mg a day for adults.2 Diuretics and proton pump inhibitors can affect magnesium status.2 The omeprazole label describes hypomagnesemia reported rarely in people treated for at least three months, most cases after a year, with tetany, arrhythmias, and seizures among the serious events.22

Magnesium and mood. This is the mineral people ask about most for depression and anxiety. The best-known trial, an open-label randomized crossover study of 126 adults with mild-to-moderate depressive symptoms, found a 6-point PHQ-9 improvement after six weeks of 248 mg of elemental magnesium.23 Open-label means participants knew what they were taking, which inflates effects in mood research, and there was no placebo arm. It is a reason to keep studying magnesium, not proof that it treats depression. With a willing prescriber and healthy kidneys, a trial within the 350 mg supplemental limit is low-risk; a trial in place of treatment is not.

Calcium

Calcium builds bone and teeth and is needed for nerve signaling and muscle contraction; vitamin D is required to absorb it.3 The typical blood range is 8.8 to 10.3 mg/dL (2.20 to 2.58 mmol/L).24

High calcium (hypercalcemia) is usually found on routine blood tests in people with no symptoms. When symptoms occur they may include nausea, constipation, thirst and frequent urination, muscle weakness, fatigue or confusion, and bone pain. The most common cause is an overactive parathyroid gland; dehydration and some cancers are others.25 Confusion and low energy from a high calcium can be mistaken for depression, which is one reason calcium sits on the panel.

Supplements. Adult RDAs are 1,000 to 1,200 mg a day and the upper limit is 2,000 to 2,500 mg, both including food.3 Whether calcium pills raise cardiovascular risk is unsettled: a 2010 meta-analysis of randomized trials found a modest increase in myocardial infarction with calcium supplements taken without vitamin D, while other studies have found no link.123 Higher supplemental intake can also raise kidney-stone risk.3 Food first, with supplements reserved for a documented need.

Zinc

Zinc is required by hundreds of enzymes and supports immune function, protein and DNA synthesis, wound healing, and the sense of taste.9 Serum or plasma zinc in healthy people typically runs 80 to 120 mcg/dL.9 Adult RDAs are 8 to 12 mg a day; the upper limit is 40 mg.9 People at risk of low zinc include those with gastrointestinal disease or bariatric surgery, vegetarians and vegans, and pregnant and breastfeeding women.9

Zinc and depression. A 2013 meta-analysis of 17 studies found blood zinc about 1.85 µmol/L lower in people with depression than in controls, with lower levels in more severe depression.26 That is an association, not evidence that zinc pills treat depression in people who are not deficient; the authors called for trials rather than claiming a treatment effect.26

Too much zinc is a copper problem. Doses of 50 mg or more for weeks inhibit copper absorption, reduce immune function, and lower HDL cholesterol.9 Long-term high-dose zinc, including from zinc-containing denture creams, has caused copper-deficiency anemia and nerve damage.9 Cold lozenges and immune products add up. Parents asking about zinc for a child’s attention problems should read Zinc, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and B Vitamins for ADHD, which covers the trial evidence in children.

Copper

Copper is carried in the blood mainly by ceruloplasmin and is needed by the enzymes that defend cells against oxidative damage, among others.11 Normal serum copper is 10 to 25 mcmol/L (63.5 to 158.9 mcg/dL), with ceruloplasmin 180 to 400 mg/L, but both rise with estrogen, pregnancy, infection, and inflammation, so an isolated high value often means something other than excess copper.11 The adult RDA is 900 mcg a day and typical American diets meet it; the upper limit is 10,000 mcg.11

Copper deficiency produces anemia, bone problems, a higher risk of infection, and neurological signs such as unsteady gait (ataxia), not the “panic attacks” the previous version of this page listed.11 The usual causes are high-dose zinc and malabsorption such as celiac disease.11

Wilson disease is the rare inherited disorder in which the body cannot clear copper, which then damages the liver and brain.11 It belongs in a psychiatric essay because psychiatric symptoms are often the first sign: a 2014 review found that 30 to 40 percent of patients have psychiatric manifestations at diagnosis, 20 percent had already seen a psychiatrist, and when psychiatric symptoms came first the average delay to diagnosis was more than two years.27 New psychosis, mood change, or personality change in a young adult with liver abnormalities or a movement problem is a reason to check copper and ceruloplasmin, and a reason never to take copper on your own.

Selenium

Selenium is built into the selenoproteins that handle thyroid hormone metabolism, DNA synthesis, and protection from oxidative damage.10 Adult RDAs run 55 to 70 mcg a day depending on life stage, and the upper limit is 400 mcg.10

The Brazil nut arithmetic. USDA FoodData Central lists dried Brazil nuts at about 1,920 mcg of selenium per 100 g, with a single kernel weighing about 5 g, so one nut delivers roughly 96 mcg, nearly two days’ RDA.28 Four or five nuts a day, every day, sits above the upper limit. The selenium content of plant foods varies widely with the soil they grew in, so the number is an estimate rather than a promise.10

Too much selenium (selenosis) shows up as hair loss and brittle nails, and can include a garlic odor on the breath, a metallic taste, rash, nausea, diarrhea, fatigue, irritability, and nervous-system abnormalities.10

Selenium and mood. The evidence is old and small. A 1991 double-blind crossover trial gave 50 British adults 100 mcg of selenium or placebo for five weeks and reported better mood, particularly less anxiety, mainly in people whose diets were low in selenium to begin with.29 One trial of fifty people from 1991 supports eating enough selenium; it does not make selenium a treatment for anxiety or depression.

Iron, briefly

Iron gets its own essay because low iron is common and its symptoms, fatigue and poor concentration among them, overlap with depression: Iron and Your Mental Health. The short version is that ferritin is the test to ask about, and that iron is a supplement to dose to a lab result rather than guess.

Phosphate and refeeding

Phosphorus is measured as phosphate, with a typical adult range of 2.8 to 4.5 mg/dL.30 Deficiency is rare in the United States and almost never comes from diet; effects can include appetite loss, anemia, muscle weakness, tingling, and confusion.4

The reason phosphate belongs on a mental-health page is refeeding syndrome. When a severely malnourished person, including someone with anorexia nervosa or heavy alcohol use, starts eating or receiving nutrition again, the body’s shift back to building tissue pulls phosphate, potassium, and magnesium into cells within two to five days, and levels can fall dangerously.4 The 2020 ASPEN consensus defines the syndrome by that drop in phosphorus, potassium, or magnesium after nutrition is restarted.31 The consequences can include muscle and breathing failure, confusion, coma, heart failure, and cardiac arrest, and the syndrome is prevented by giving phosphorus and thiamine before and during refeeding.4 It is managed in hospital, not at home. If someone recovering from an eating disorder develops chest pain, fainting, seizures, severe weakness, or confusion, call 911. Eating Disorders 101 covers when medical admission is needed.

Psychiatric medicines and your electrolytes

SSRIs and SNRIs and low sodium. Antidepressants can cause SIADH, holding water and diluting sodium. A class-by-class review found the odds of hyponatremia consistently higher with SSRIs and venlafaxine than with tricyclics, with older age and thiazide diuretics as the main added risks; mirtazapine carried a moderate risk.6 A population study of older adults found a roughly fivefold higher 30-day risk of hospitalization with hyponatremia after starting a second-generation antidepressant, though the absolute risk was small, about 0.33 percent versus 0.06 percent.5 The practical points: the risk is front-loaded in the first weeks after starting or raising a dose; older adults and people on diuretics deserve a baseline and a follow-up sodium; and new confusion, headache, nausea, or unsteadiness on a new antidepressant is a reason to call the prescriber. SSRIs After 65 goes into monitoring.

Carbamazepine and oxcarbazepine. These mood stabilizers lower sodium often enough that routine checks are recommended. In a cohort of 1,782 people with epilepsy, hyponatremia occurred in 26 percent of those on carbamazepine and 46 percent on oxcarbazepine, and was severe (sodium 128 or below) in 7 and 22 percent respectively; age over 40, higher drug levels, and other anticonvulsants raised the risk, and women on oxcarbazepine were at higher risk than men.7 The authors’ recommendation was routine sodium checks, acted on.7 An expert consensus from the Association of Medicine and Psychiatry lists SSRIs, SNRIs, antipsychotics, carbamazepine, and oxcarbazepine as the psychotropics with moderate-to-high evidence of causing SIADH and proposes stopping, reducing, or substituting the medicine depending on symptom severity.32 Management of SIADH-related low sodium can include limiting water intake; drinking extra water is the wrong move.13

Lithium and sodium. The lithium label warns that diuretic-induced sodium loss reduces lithium clearance and raises the lithium level, that sodium restriction and diuretics should be avoided, and that dehydration, volume depletion, and changes in sodium and potassium are risk factors for toxicity; it also notes that lithium itself can lower sodium.8 Heat, vomiting and diarrhea, a new low-salt diet, and a new water pill are all reasons for a level check. Living Well on Lithium covers heat and hydration in detail.

Proton pump inhibitors and diuretics and magnesium. Both can lower magnesium.2 The omeprazole label describes hypomagnesemia after at least three months of use, most cases after a year, and warns that it can drag calcium and potassium down with it.22 Someone on a PPI plus a diuretic plus a medicine that prolongs the QT interval is the person whose magnesium should not be assumed.

ACE inhibitors, ARBs, and potassium-sparing diuretics and potassium. These raise potassium, especially with kidney disease.17 Potassium-sparing diuretics such as spironolactone do not increase potassium excretion and can cause hyperkalemia outright.14 Add a potassium-chloride salt substitute and the combination becomes a problem.14

Antipsychotics, QT interval, and potassium and magnesium. Some antipsychotics prolong the QT interval, and low potassium or magnesium increases the risk of a dangerous rhythm. The ziprasidone (Geodon) label says the drug should be avoided in patients with hypokalemia or hypomagnesemia, that people at risk of electrolyte disturbances should have baseline potassium and magnesium measured and corrected before starting, and that anyone started on a diuretic during treatment needs periodic monitoring of both.33 Report new diarrhea, vomiting, or a new water pill to the prescriber for the same reason.

If you take one of the medicines above and develop new confusion, unusual fatigue, headache with nausea, or muscle cramps, ask for a sodium level. For a seizure or loss of consciousness, call 911.

Supplements: the ones never to start alone

• Potassium in prescription doses. Over-the-counter products are capped at 99 mg for a reason.14
• Selenium. The upper limit is 400 mcg a day and Brazil nuts alone can reach it.1028
• Copper. Typical diets already meet the RDA, and a high value usually means inflammation or estrogen, not a need.11
• Phosphate and bicarbonate. These are prescribed for specific medical conditions and monitored by blood test.
• Zinc above 40 mg a day. It causes copper deficiency.9
• Calcium in high doses without a documented need. The cardiovascular question is unresolved and kidney-stone risk rises.123
• Magnesium above 350 mg a day from supplements.2 Ask first if you have kidney disease.

Bring every supplement bottle to appointments. “Natural” products are still doses.

When to get help now

Call 911 or go to the nearest emergency room for chest pain, an irregular heartbeat, a seizure, severe confusion or loss of consciousness, or trouble breathing. These can be signs of a dangerous potassium, sodium, calcium, or magnesium level, and they cannot be sorted out at home.

If a child or adult has swallowed a large amount of any mineral supplement, call Poison Help at 1-800-222-1222.34 Multivitamins with iron count.

Questions to ask your prescriber

• Which of these values do my medicines affect, and when should we recheck them?
• Is my sodium something to watch on this antidepressant or mood stabilizer, and what symptoms should make me call?
• If I am on lithium, what should I do about heat, illness, and salt?
• Which of my supplements, if any, could be causing a problem, and which are pointless?

Frequently asked questions

Should I get my minerals checked before starting a supplement?

For potassium, selenium, copper, iron, and phosphate, yes, because the supplement can hurt you and the test tells you whether you need it. For magnesium, a serum level does not accurately reflect body stores,2 so the better first question is whether there is a reason to think you are low: diet, absorption problems, alcohol, diuretics, or a PPI. Before You Call It Depression explains which tests a depression evaluation should include.

Can a mineral deficiency cause depression or anxiety on its own?

Severe electrolyte disturbances cause confusion, irritability, fatigue, and seizures.13 Lower zinc and lower dietary mineral intake are associated with depression in observational studies,2618 but association is not cause, and no mineral supplement is an established treatment for a psychiatric disorder. Treat a real deficiency because it is a deficiency; treat the depression as depression.

Related reading on NP FADY

• Before You Call It Depression: Thyroid, B12, Iron, Sleep Apnea, and the Medications That Can Cause It
• Iron and Your Mental Health
• Living Well on Lithium: Levels, Labs, Heat, and Dehydration
• SSRIs After 65: What Changes, What to Watch, and What to Ask
• Zinc, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and B Vitamins for ADHD
• Eating Disorders 101

References

1. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Sodium blood test. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

2. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. Magnesium: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Accessed September 26, 2026.

3. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. Calcium: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Accessed September 26, 2026.

4. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. Phosphorus: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Accessed September 26, 2026.

5. Gandhi S, Shariff SZ, Al-Jaishi A, et al. Second-generation antidepressants and hyponatremia risk: a population-based cohort study of older adults. Am J Kidney Dis. 2017;69(1):87-96. DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2016.08.020. PMID: 27773479.

6. De Picker L, Van Den Eede F, Dumont G, Moorkens G, Sabbe BG. Antidepressants and the risk of hyponatremia: a class-by-class review of literature. Psychosomatics. 2014;55(6):536-547. DOI: 10.1016/j.psym.2014.01.010. PMID: 25262043.

7. Berghuis B, van der Palen J, de Haan GJ, et al; EpiPGX Consortium. Carbamazepine- and oxcarbazepine-induced hyponatremia in people with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2017;58(7):1227-1233. DOI: 10.1111/epi.13777. PMID: 28542738.

8. DailyMed. Lithium carbonate tablets: prescribing information. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

9. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. Zinc: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Accessed September 26, 2026.

10. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. Selenium: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Accessed September 26, 2026.

11. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. Copper: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Accessed September 26, 2026.

12. Bolland MJ, Avenell A, Baron JA, et al. Effect of calcium supplements on risk of myocardial infarction and cardiovascular events: meta-analysis. BMJ. 2010;341:c3691. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.c3691. PMID: 20671013.

13. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Low blood sodium. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

14. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. Potassium: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Accessed September 26, 2026.

15. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Potassium test. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

16. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Low blood potassium. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

17. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. High potassium level. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

18. Wang S, Luo N, Jiang J, et al. Association of dietary mineral intake with depression in overweight or obese adults: a cross-sectional study in the United States. J Affect Disord. 2026;392:120080. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2025.120080. PMID: 40840724.

19. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Chloride test - blood. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

20. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. CO2 blood test. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

21. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Magnesium blood test. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

22. DailyMed. Omeprazole delayed-release capsules: prescribing information, section 5.9, Hypomagnesemia and Mineral Metabolism. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

23. Tarleton EK, Littenberg B, MacLean CD, Kennedy AG, Daley C. Role of magnesium supplementation in the treatment of depression: a randomized clinical trial. PLoS One. 2017;12(6):e0180067. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180067. PMID: 28654669.

24. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Calcium blood test. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

25. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Hypercalcemia. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

26. Swardfager W, Herrmann N, Mazereeuw G, Goldberger K, Harimoto T, Lanctôt KL. Zinc in depression: a meta-analysis. Biol Psychiatry. 2013;74(12):872-878. DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.05.008. PMID: 23806573.

27. Zimbrean PC, Schilsky ML. Psychiatric aspects of Wilson disease: a review. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2014;36(1):53-62. DOI: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2013.08.007. PMID: 24120023.

28. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. FoodData Central: Nuts, brazilnuts, dried, unblanched (SR Legacy, FDC ID 170569). Accessed September 26, 2026.

29. Benton D, Cook R. The impact of selenium supplementation on mood. Biol Psychiatry. 1991;29(11):1092-1098. DOI: 10.1016/0006-3223(91)90251-g. PMID: 1873372.

30. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Phosphorus blood test. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

31. da Silva JSV, Seres DS, Sabino K, et al. ASPEN consensus recommendations for refeeding syndrome. Nutr Clin Pract. 2020;35(2):178-195. DOI: 10.1002/ncp.10474. PMID: 32115791.

32. Pinkhasov A, Xiong G, Bourgeois JA, et al. Management of SIADH-related hyponatremia due to psychotropic medications: an expert consensus from the Association of Medicine and Psychiatry. J Psychosom Res. 2021;151:110654. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110654. PMID: 34739943.

33. DailyMed. Geodon (ziprasidone) prescribing information. National Library of Medicine. Accessed September 26, 2026.

34. Health Resources and Services Administration. Poison Help. 1-800-222-1222. Accessed September 26, 2026.

This article is for education and is not a substitute for diagnosis or treatment from a qualified health professional. Do not start, stop, or change medication or supplements without appropriate clinical guidance. Evidence last checked September 26, 2026.

If you or someone you know is in crisis

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